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Special relativity

Albert Einstein Hendrik Lorentz Henri Poincaré

This page delivers no verdict; it presents claims and evidence with their sources. No theory in science is absolute. Method

For everyone

Einstein started from two assumptions: the laws of physics are the same for everyone in uniform motion, and the speed of light in vacuum is the same for everyone. From these it follows that fast-moving clocks run slow, lengths contract and mass and energy are equivalent (E = mc²).

For specialists

The theory derives the Lorentz transformations from kinematic principles and makes simultaneity frame-dependent. Minkowski (1908) reformulated it as the four-dimensional geometry of spacetime. Time dilation has been measured in the lifetime of muons in storage rings (Bailey et al. 1977, γ ≈ 29.3) and in flights with atomic clocks (Hafele–Keating 1972). Because of earlier contributions by Lorentz and Poincaré, historians have debated how much of the theory is due to whom.

Claims

Moving clocks run slow relative to a stationary observer (time dilation).^[1]
Mass and energy are equivalent (E = mc²).^[2]

Evidence

Supporting

Experiment

The lifetime of muons circulating near light speed in a storage ring was measured to be extended by the predicted factor.^[3]

Experiment

Atomic clocks flown around the world showed the predicted time differences relative to ground clocks.^[4]

Challenging

—

Positions

Priority debate: Whittaker (1953) argued the theory was essentially due to Poincaré and Lorentz; most historians regard Einstein's kinematic foundation as decisive.^[5][6]

Connections

Sources

ArticleEinstein, A. (1905). Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper. Annalen der Physik 322(10), 891–921DOI 10.1002/andp.19053221004 archive
ArticleEinstein, A. (1905). Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?. Annalen der Physik 323(13), 639–641DOI 10.1002/andp.19053231314 archive
ArticleBailey, J. et al. (1977). Measurements of relativistic time dilatation for positive and negative muons in a circular orbit. Nature 268, 301–305DOI 10.1038/268301a0 archive
ArticleHafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (1972). Around-the-world atomic clocks: observed relativistic time gains. Science 177, 168–170DOI 10.1126/science.177.4044.168 archive
BookWhittaker, E. T. (1953). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Vol. 2: The Modern Theories 1900–1926. Thomas Nelson, London
BookPais, A. (1982). 'Subtle is the Lord...': The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press

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Cite this page

APA

Athena contributors. (2026). Special relativity. Athena: The tree of human knowledge. Retrieved November 1, 2026, from https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ozel-gorelilik/

BibTeX

@misc{athena_ozel_gorelilik,
  title        = {Special relativity},
  author       = {{Athena contributors}},
  year         = {2026},
  howpublished = {\url{https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ozel-gorelilik/}},
  note         = {Athena: The tree of human knowledge. Accessed: 2026-11-01}
}

Added: September 27, 2026 · Last changed: September 28, 2026 · Page history

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