The tree of human knowledge: claims, evidence and sourceshttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/en-UShttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/akilli-tasarim/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/akilli-tasarim/According to proponents of intelligent design, some biological structures are so complex that they would not work at all if one part were missing ("irreducible complexity"). They therefore infer that such structures were produced by an intelligent designer rather than by blind, step-by-step processes. Opponents present models showing the stepwise development of these structures and argue that the theory is not scientifically testable. In 2005 a US court held that teaching it as science in public schools was unconstitutional.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/alphafold/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/alphafold/Predicting a protein's three-dimensional shape from its amino-acid sequence was a 50-year-old problem in biology. AlphaFold 2 made predictions close to experimental accuracy at the CASP competition in 2020. Hassabis, Jumper and David Baker received the 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The predictions remain models that need experimental confirmation.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/apollo-11/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/apollo-11/On 20 July 1969 Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the Moon. In six Apollo missions from 1969 to 1972, 12 astronauts walked on the Moon and brought back 382 kg of lunar rock. Some people claim that the landings were staged; retroreflectors left on the surface, the returned samples and photographs taken from orbit are cited as evidence of the landings.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/aristoteles/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/aristoteles/Aristotle was the first philosopher to study systematically the rules of valid reasoning; his theory of the syllogism was the basis of logic for about two thousand years. His writings on physics, biology, ethics and politics earned him the title "al-Muʿallim al-Awwal" (the First Teacher) in the Islamic world. Some of his views on physics, such as heavier bodies falling faster, were later challenged by experiment.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ayasofya/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ayasofya/Hagia Sophia was designed by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus on the orders of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I and opened in 537. Its dome, about 31 metres across, was set on four pendentives and buttressed by semi-domes over a vast interior. The first dome collapsed after an earthquake in 558 and was rebuilt higher in 562. The building became a mosque in 1453, a museum in 1934 and a mosque again in 2020.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/bayes/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/bayes/Thomas Bayes's essay, published after his death in 1763 by Richard Price, offered a method showing how confidence in a hypothesis should be updated when new evidence arrives. Laplace developed and generalised the idea independently. Today Bayes' theorem is used widely, from medical diagnosis and artificial intelligence to debates on scientific method and the weighing of evidence in courts. What probability means, however, is debated.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/biyocesitlilik/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/biyocesitlilik/The 2019 global assessment of IPBES, a UN-linked body, estimated that around one million animal and plant species face extinction. Some researchers argue that today's extinction rate is far above the natural rate and that Earth has entered a sixth mass extinction. Others show that estimates of extinction rates depend heavily on the methods used and that species numbers are not declining everywhere at local scale. The debate is less about whether loss is happening than about its rate and scale.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/boyle/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/boyle/Robert Boyle questioned Aristotle's four elements and Paracelsus' three principles through experiment and argued that matter consists of small particles. He is usually counted among the founders of modern chemistry. It is also known that he pursued alchemical work on transmuting metals into gold until his death.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/butunlesik-bilgi/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/butunlesik-bilgi/According to this theory, proposed by Giulio Tononi in 2004, consciousness is a system's capacity to generate integrated information over and above its parts. This capacity is measured by a quantity called Φ (phi). On the theory, consciousness is tied to tightly connected structures in posterior regions of the brain and is not unique to brains. Some researchers regard it as a principled theoretical basis for consciousness, while others criticise it on the grounds that its core claims cannot be tested.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/buyuk-patlama/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/buyuk-patlama/In 1927 Lemaître proposed that the universe is expanding and emerged from a very dense, hot initial state in the past. Hubble's measurement of galaxies receding and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965 supported this view; Hoyle and others advocated a "steady state" universe without a beginning. The creation narratives of religions describe the beginning of the universe in different ways.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/cok-dunyalar/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/cok-dunyalar/In 1957 Hugh Everett proposed that the wave function never collapses. The Schrödinger equation always holds and every possible outcome of a measurement occurs. Everything, including the observer, splits into "branches" in which different outcomes happen and which do not interact. The interpretation is defended for adding no collapse postulate to the theory; critics object to its acceptance of countless unobservable worlds and question how probability is to be understood.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/crispr/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/crispr/Derived from a defence system bacteria use against viruses, CRISPR-Cas9 made it easy and cheap to cut and change DNA at a chosen site. It was the subject of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 2023 the first CRISPR therapy was approved for sickle-cell disease. An unauthorised edit of human embryos in 2018 drew international condemnation.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/cuneyd/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/cuneyd/Al-Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910) is one of the most influential figures of early Sufism. He defined Sufism as a path bound to the Qur'an and the Sunna and in harmony with the sharia. Instead of sayings uttered in ecstasy (sukr) he emphasised sobriety (ṣaḥw). Many later orders trace their chains of transmission to him, and he is called "master of the group" (sayyid al-ṭāʾifa).Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/dalton/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/dalton/Dalton argued that each element consists of indivisible atoms of characteristic weight and that compounds form when atoms combine in simple ratios. Many scientists regarded atoms only as a useful calculating device until the early 20th century. Einstein's 1905 explanation of Brownian motion and Perrin's measurements of 1908–1909 were decisive in that debate. The idea of atoms also appears in other forms in ancient Greece and in Islamic kalām.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/dilbilim/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/dilbilim/The field that studies the structure, history and diversity of human language and how it works in the mind. More than 7,000 languages are spoken today, almost half of them endangered. How languages are related and where they were first spoken are among the field's most debated questions.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/dinler/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/dinler/Religions are humanity's oldest and most widespread systems of answers about existence, creation, ethics and the afterlife. As of 2020 about 29% of the world's population is Christian, 26% Muslim and 24% unaffiliated with any religion. Athena does not score religions; it reports each religion's own claims and sources as they are.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ekosistem/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ekosistem/In 1935 the British botanist Arthur Tansley proposed the term "ecosystem" to treat living things and their physical surroundings as a single system. This approach made it possible to study forests, lakes and seas through energy flow and nutrient cycles. In the second half of the 20th century ecology became both a scientific discipline and a body of knowledge on which environmental policy rests.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/esarilik/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/esarilik/Al-Ashʿarī broke with the Muʿtazila and founded a school that sought to reconcile transmitted texts and reason. For the Ashʿarīs the only true agent in the world is God: fire burning cotton is a "custom" (ʿāda) that God creates anew at every moment, not a necessary result of fire's own nature. This view is known in Western philosophy as occasionalism, and has resurfaced in current debates about evolution and science.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/fahreddin-razi/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/fahreddin-razi/Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (1149–1210) re-examined Ashʿarī kalām with the concepts and methods of Avicenna's philosophy. He wrote on kalām, philosophy, Qur'an commentary, legal theory, medicine and astronomy. His great commentary, Mafātīḥ al-ghayb, explains the verses through extensive theological and philosophical discussion. His critical commentary on Avicenna's Ishārāt, together with Ṭūsī's defence, started a debate that was read for centuries.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/faydacilik/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/faydacilik/According to utilitarianism, whether an action is right depends on how much its consequences increase the total happiness of everyone. Bentham expressed this as "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". Mill argued that pleasures differ in quality. The view has shaped debates on animal rights and global poverty. Critics argue that individual rights could be sacrificed for the sake of total welfare.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/felsefe/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/felsefe/Inquiry by reasoning into being, knowledge, truth, the good and the beautiful. Most of the sciences were born from philosophy: "natural philosophy" is the ancestor of physics, "moral philosophy" of the social sciences. The theory of knowledge (epistemology), which asks how knowledge is acquired and what counts as knowledge, lies at the base of every branch in this tree.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/fenomenoloji/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/fenomenoloji/Phenomenology is a philosophical method that tries to describe experience from the first-person point of view, as it appears to us. It is taken to begin with Husserl's Logical Investigations, published in 1900–1901. Central to it is the idea that consciousness is always consciousness of something, that it is directed at something. Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty carried the method to questions of being, the body and perception.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/fmri/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/fmri/fMRI indirectly shows which brain regions are more active during a task by measuring changes in blood oxygenation. The BOLD signal it relies on was described in 1990 by Seiji Ogawa and colleagues. By allowing the human brain to be studied without surgery, fMRI transformed cognitive neuroscience. It has also been shown, however, that some statistical methods can give false positives and that repeated measurements in the same person can have low reliability.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/frege/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/frege/With the Begriffsschrift ("concept script") of 1879 Frege rebuilt a logic that had changed little since Aristotle. He treated quantifiers such as "every" and "some" within a complete system for the first time. His aim was to show that arithmetic can be derived from pure logic. In 1902 Russell found a contradiction in the system and the programme could not continue in that form, but the logic he developed became a basic tool of today's mathematics and computer science.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/gazali-tehafut/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/gazali-tehafut/In this work al-Ghazālī criticised, on twenty issues, the Peripatetic philosophy represented by Ibn Sīnā and al-Fārābī, arguing that the philosophers' views rest on conjecture rather than demonstration. He criticised the philosophers sharply on the eternity of the world, God's not knowing particulars and the denial of bodily resurrection. In the seventeenth discussion he argued that causality is not necessary.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/genel-gorelilik/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/genel-gorelilik/According to Einstein, gravity is not a force but the curving of spacetime by mass and energy. Bodies follow the most natural paths in this curved spacetime. The theory predicts the bending of light near massive bodies, black holes, gravitational waves and the clock differences that GPS satellites must correct for.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/genisletilmis-sentez/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/genisletilmis-sentez/A group of biologists argues that developmental processes, environment-dependent changes in form, epigenetic inheritance and organisms' modification of their own surroundings (niche construction) play a larger role in directing evolution than assumed, and that the current theory should therefore be extended. Other biologists argue that these phenomena are already accommodated within the existing theory.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/genom/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/genom/The Human Genome Project was declared "complete" in 2003, but about 8% of the genome could not be read for technical reasons. In 2022 the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) Consortium published the first gapless human genome using long-read sequencing. In 2023 a draft "pangenome" including genomes of 47 people of diverse ancestry was also published.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/haci-bektas/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/haci-bektas/Hacı Bektaş Veli is a 13th-century Sufi who came from Khorasan to Anatolia and settled at Sulucakarahöyük (today Hacıbektaş) near Kırşehir. The Alevi and Bektashi traditions regard him as their "pir". Most of what is known about his life rests on the Vilâyetnâme, written about two centuries after his death. The Bektashi order that bears his name is held to have been institutionalised later, not founded by him.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/hallac/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/hallac/Al-Ḥallāj is a Sufi known for the words "Anā al-Ḥaqq" ("I am the Truth", al-Ḥaqq being one of the names of God). After a long trial he was executed in Baghdad in 922. What his words meant and why he was punished have been debated for centuries. Some saw him as having strayed from the religion, while many Sufis read his words as an expression of the servant passing away in God's being (fanāʾ). Historians also stress the political side of the trial.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/harezmi/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/harezmi/Al-Khwārizmī, working at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, gave the word "algebra" its name with his book on solving equations systematically. The word "algorithm" also comes from the Latin form of his name. Historians debate whether the "father" of algebra is al-Khwārizmī or the earlier Diophantus of Alexandria.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/hodgkin-huxley/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/hodgkin-huxley/Measuring on the giant axon of the squid, Hodgkin and Huxley showed that the nerve impulse (action potential) arises from the movement of sodium and potassium ions across the membrane. The mathematical model they published in 1952 correctly predicted the shape and speed of the signal and remains one of the basic tools of neuroscience. They received the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The ion channels they inferred were measured one by one in 1976.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/hukuk/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/hukuk/Human communities have set rules for living together and debated the relationship between rulers and ruled. There are different traditions, from the laws of Hammurabi to Islamic law (fiqh), from Magna Carta to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Whether the source of justice is God, nature, reason or social agreement is a basic debate.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ibn-heysem/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ibn-heysem/Born in Basra, Ibn al-Haytham argued in his Kitāb al-Manāẓir (Book of Optics) that vision occurs not by rays leaving the eye but by light coming from objects to the eye. He studied the rectilinear propagation of light, reflection, refraction and the camera obscura by experiment, which is why some historians count him among the pioneers of the experimental method. Translated into Latin, the work influenced European optics up to Kepler.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ibn-rusd/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ibn-rusd/Ibn Rushd answered al-Ghazālī's critique of the philosophers, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, with The Incoherence of the Incoherence. He defended causality, holding that fire burns cotton because of the nature of fire, and argued that philosophical reflection is religiously required. A movement called Averroism arose in the Latin world.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ibn-sina/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ibn-sina/Ibn Sīnā's encyclopedic Book of Healing (Kitāb al-Shifāʾ) covers logic, physics, mathematics and metaphysics. He sought to ground God's existence by reason with the argument from the necessary existent. He is also famous for the "flying man" thought experiment, which says that a person blindfolded and suspended in empty space would still be aware of their own existence.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ilk-bilgiler/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/ilk-bilgiler/The basic skills and knowledge humanity acquired before writing: stone toolmaking, the use of fire, language, farming, counting and finally writing itself. Because the dates of most of these are not known with certainty, their pages list different dating views side by side.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/imam-rabbani/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/imam-rabbani/Aḥmad Sirhindī (1564–1624), who lived in India, is known by the titles "Imām-i Rabbānī" and "renewer of the second millennium". He founded the Mujaddidī branch of the Naqshbandiyya. Against the unity of being (waḥdat al-wujūd) attributed to Ibn ʿArabī he developed the view of the unity of witnessing (waḥdat al-shuhūd). His letters, the Maktūbāt, had wide influence in the Ottoman world as well.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/internet/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/internet/On the ARPANET, the forerunner of the internet, the first message was sent from UCLA to Stanford on 29 October 1969. The idea of packet switching, splitting data into small packets, was developed independently by Paul Baran in the US and Donald Davies in the UK. TCP/IP, described by Cerf and Kahn in 1974, made it possible to connect different networks. Tim Berners-Lee proposed the World Wide Web at CERN in 1989, and the Web became the most common way of using the internet.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMThttps://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/islam-felsefesi/https://latifkedi.github.io/athena/en/d/islam-felsefesi/With the translation of Greek philosophy into Arabic (8th–10th centuries), philosophers such as al-Kindī, al-Fārābī, Ibn Sīnā and Ibn Rushd emerged in the Islamic world. They built original systems relating Aristotle and Neoplatonism to Islamic belief. Their works, translated into Latin, also influenced European scholasticism. Some of the philosophers' views were criticised by theologians, especially al-Ghazālī.Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 GMT